An 18-month follow-up of the Covid-19 psychology research consortium study panel: Survey design and fieldwork procedures for Wave 6.

OBJECTIVES: Established in March 2020, the C19PRC Study monitors the psychological and socio-economic impact of the pandemic in the UK and other countries. This paper describes the protocol for Wave 6 (August-September 2021). METHODS: The survey assessed: COVID-19 related experiences; experiences of common mental health disorders; psychological characteristics; and social and political attitudes. Adult participants from any previous wave (N = 3170) were re-invited, and sample replenishment procedures helped manage attrition. Weights were calculated using a survey raking algorithm to ensure the on-going original panel (from baseline) was nationally representative in terms of gender, age, and household income, amongst other factors. RESULTS: 1643 adults were re-interviewed at Wave 6 (51.8% retention rate). Non-participation was higher younger adults, those born outside UK, and adults living in cities. Of the adults recruited at baseline, 54.3% (N = 1100) participated in Wave 6. New respondent (N = 415) entered the panel at this wave, resulting in cross-sectional sample for Wave 6 of 2058 adults. The raking procedure re-balanced the longitudinal panel to within 1.3% of population estimates for selected socio-demographic characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: This paper outlines the growing strength of the publicly available C19PRC Study data for COVID-19-related interdisciplinary research.

Development and initial validation of a short form of the Memories of Home and Family Scale

Background The Memories of Home and Family Scale (MHFS;Shevlin et al., 2022) was developed as a multidimensional measure of subjective memories of experiences at home and with family during childhood. Due to the length of the scale, a short version of the MHFS (MHFS-SF) has been developed. Data were from Wave 7 of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium Study (C19PRC-UK), a population based UK survey (N = 1405). Two items with the highest factor loadings from each of the six dimensions of the original MHFS were selected for inclusion. Confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) models were estimated to test the dimensionality of the scale. Convergent and discriminant validity were tested by examining associations with criterion variables. CFA results supported the multidimensionality of the scale. MHFS-SF total and sub-scale scores were negatively correlated with measures of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and paranoia, and were positively correlated with wellbeing. Regression analyses revealed that MHFS-SF total and sub-scale scores significantly predicted loneliness, paranoia, and wellbeing, even after accounting for age, gender, and current internalising symptoms. Results from this study suggest that the MHFS-SF scores retain the excellent psychometric properties of the original scale while improving efficiency. The MHFS-SF demonstrated high levels of convergent and discriminant validity with mental health and wellbeing measures. Future research should seek to validate the MHFS-SF in different populations and assess its usefulness in clinical settings. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42844-023-00097-x.

Assessing prevalence, validity, and correlates of ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in Ireland.

BACKGROUND: The most frequently used measure of the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) is the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ). While there is strong support for the psychometric properties of the ITQ, few studies have assessed its reliability and validity in nationally representative samples. Additionally, several correlates of ICD-11 CPTSD have been identified; however, few studies have assessed multiple correlates simultaneously. OBJECTIVE: To assess the factorial validity and internal reliability of the ITQ in a nationally representative sample of adults living in Ireland (N = 1,100); determine the prevalence rates of ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and CPTSD; and identify correlates of CPTSD symptoms and how CPTSD symptoms relate to risk of suicide. METHOD: Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to evaluate the factorial validity of the ITQ, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to determine the unique multivariate associations between 10 predictor variables (age, sex, urban dwelling, unemployment status, number of traumatic events, COVID-19 infection, knowing someone who died from COVID-19, loneliness, social support, and sleep problems) and symptoms of CPTSD, and the unique associations between CPTSD symptoms and suicide risk. RESULTS: The ITQ produces reliable and valid scores, 11.2% of people met requirements for ICD-11 PTSD (2.4%) or CPTSD (8.8%), exposure to a higher number of traumatic life events, higher levels of loneliness, and more sleep problems predicted CPTSD symptoms; and negative self-concept (NSC) symptoms were most strongly associated with suicidality. CONCLUSIONS: Where the risk of suicide is high, treating symptoms of NSC, loneliness, and sleep problems may be advisable. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Gender differences in intimate partner violence: Risk factors and associations with suicide.

OBJECTIVE: This study sought to provide updated estimates of the occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV) in the general adult population of Ireland and to better understand gender-specific profiles of IPV, their risk factors, and their relationship with suicidality. METHOD: Data (N = 1,098) from Wave 4 of the Irish arm of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) study were used. RESULTS: 32.1% of the sample experienced lifetime IPV, with IPV more common among females. Latent class analysis results showed that females had a more complex profile of IPV (four classes) than males (three classes). Risk factors for females included younger age, having children, lower income level, lower social support, and lower social contact, while risk factors for males were living in an urban environment, having children, and lower social support. All IPV exposure was found to be associated with a significantly higher likelihood of experiencing multiple suicide-related phenomena for males and females. CONCLUSION: IPV is a major public social health issue affecting approximately one-in-three females and one-in-four males in Ireland and is strongly associated with suicide-related phenomena. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Symptoms and levels of ICD-11 Prolonged Grief Disorder in a representative community sample of UK adults.

BACKGROUND: Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) is a new disorder included in ICD-11 (WHO, 2018). There is a growing body of literature surrounding the prevalence and correlates of ICD-11 PGD symptoms as assessed using various measures. This study was the first to assess levels of ICD-11 PGD symptoms as measured by the International Prolonged Grief Disorder Scale (IPGDS), a self-report scale directly aligned with the ICD-11 definition of PGD, among the United Kingdom adult general population, and identify correlates. METHOD: Participants included 2025 adults who participated in Wave 5 of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium Study (C19PRC-UK). Prevalence rates of PGD were estimated based on two commonly used algorithms defined as 'strict' and 'moderate'. Sociodemographic, loss-related, and mental health correlates (i.e., anxiety, depression, mental health treatment seeking, loneliness) of strict and moderate PGD were then examined using multinomial logistic regressions. RESULTS: It was found that 2.4% (n = 43) of participants met probable caseness for PGD using the strict criteria while 7.9% (n = 140) met probable caseness for PGD using the moderate criteria. Multinomial logistic regression analysis results showed, as predicted, that income, time since bereavement, death of a child, religiosity, and depression were associated with both moderate and strict PGD. Correlates of moderate PGD included country of residence, urbanicity, younger age of bereaved, and loneliness. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights that some symptoms of PGD are commonly reported in the general population, although relatively few meet the criteria for clinical significance. The routine assessment for PGD following a bereavement is discussed and the development of appropriate interventions are recommended.

How does the COVID-19 pandemic impact on population mental health? A network analysis of COVID influences on depression, anxiety and traumatic stress in the UK population.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emergency has led to numerous attempts to assess the impact of the pandemic on population mental health. The findings indicate an increase in depression and anxiety but have been limited by the lack of specificity about which aspects of the pandemic (e.g. viral exposure or economic threats) have led to adverse mental health outcomes. METHODS: Network analyses were conducted on data from wave 1 (N = 2025, recruited 23 March-28 March 2020) and wave 2 (N = 1406, recontacts 22 April-1 May 2020) of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium Study, an online longitudinal survey of a representative sample of the UK adult population. Our models included depression (PHQ-9), generalized anxiety (GAD-7) and trauma symptoms (ITQ); and measures of COVID-specific anxiety, exposure to the virus in self and close others, as well as economic loss due to the pandemic. RESULTS: A mixed graphical model at wave 1 identified a potential pathway from economic adversity to anxiety symptoms via COVID-specific anxiety. There was no association between viral exposure and symptoms. Ising network models using clinical cut-offs for symptom scores at each wave yielded similar findings, with the exception of a modest effect of viral exposure on trauma symptoms at wave 1 only. Anxiety and depression symptoms formed separate clusters at wave 1 but not wave 2. CONCLUSIONS: The psychological impact of the pandemic evolved in the early phase of lockdown. COVID-related anxiety may represent the mechanism through which economic consequences of the pandemic are associated with psychiatric symptoms.

Refuting the myth of a 'tsunami' of mental ill-health in populations affected by COVID-19: evidence that response to the pandemic is heterogeneous, not homogeneous.

BACKGROUND: The current study argues that population prevalence estimates for mental health disorders, or changes in mean scores over time, may not adequately reflect the heterogeneity in mental health response to the COVID-19 pandemic within the population. METHODS: The COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) Study is a longitudinal, nationally representative, online survey of UK adults. The current study analysed data from its first three waves of data collection: Wave 1 (March 2020, N = 2025), Wave 2 (April 2020, N = 1406) and Wave 3 (July 2020, N = 1166). Anxiety-depression was measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire Anxiety and Depression Scale (a composite measure of the PHQ-9 and GAD-7) and COVID-19-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with the International Trauma Questionnaire. Changes in mental health outcomes were modelled across the three waves. Latent class growth analysis was used to identify subgroups of individuals with different trajectories of change in anxiety-depression and COVID-19 PTSD. Latent class membership was regressed on baseline characteristics. RESULTS: Overall prevalence of anxiety-depression remained stable, while COVID-19 PTSD reduced between Waves 2 and 3. Heterogeneity in mental health response was found, and hypothesised classes reflecting (i) stability, (ii) improvement and (iii) deterioration in mental health were identified. Psychological factors were most likely to differentiate the improving, deteriorating and high-stable classes from the low-stable mental health trajectories. CONCLUSIONS: A low-stable profile characterised by little-to-no psychological distress ('resilient' class) was the most common trajectory for both anxiety-depression and COVID-19 PTSD. Monitoring these trajectories is necessary moving forward, in particular for the ~30% of individuals with increasing anxiety-depression levels.

Perceived manageability of debt and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A UK population analysis.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the association between perceived manageability of debt and risk of depression, anxiety, and mental health help-seeking among a nationally representative sample of adults living in the United Kingdom (UK). METHODS: Data was derived from the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) Study Wave 6 (August/September 2021) which examined the psychological, social, and economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the UK adult population. Bivariate and logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine the association between different levels of perceived debt manageability (i.e., "easily manageable", "some problems", "quite serious problems", "very serious problems", "cannot manage at all") and mental health related outcomes. RESULTS: Almost a quarter of the sample (24%, n = 494) reported debt management problems, and debt manageability associated with higher levels of anxiety, depression, and mental health help-seeking. After adjusting for demographic variables (e.g. income, receipt of benefits), logistic regression analysis demonstrated a dose-response association between increasing levels of debt manageability problems and mental health outcomes. Specifically, adjusted odds ratios for anxiety ranged from 2.28 ('some problems') to 11.18 ('very serious problems'), for depression ranged from 2.80 ('some problems') to 16.21 ('cannot manage at all'), and for mental health help-seeking ranged from 1.69 ('some problems') to 3.18 ('quite serious problems', 'very serious problems'). CONCLUSION: This study highlights that debt manageability problems represent a robust predictor of depression, anxiety, and mental-health help seeking.

Covid-19 vaccine hesitancy and resistance amongst parents of children under 18 years of age in Ireland.

As COVID-19 vaccination for children becomes commonplace in Ireland, it is important to understand parent's willingness to vaccinate their children and factors associated with hesitancy and resistance. Amongst a nationally representative sample of parents from Ireland, surveyed in March/April 2021, 52.1% had, or were intending to have their child vaccinated; 30.1% reported they might vaccine their child; and 17.8% reported they would not vaccinate their child. Compared to vaccine-accepting parents, hesitant parents were more likely to be younger, less educated, poorer, to not know somebody who was sick from COVID-19, to believe the COVID-19 vaccines were unsafe, and to hold negative beliefs about scientists and healthcare professionals. Vaccine-resistant parents were more likely to be younger, living alone, to distrust scientists, and to believe the COVID-19 vaccines were unsafe. Public health messaging should target younger, lower income parents with clear information about the safety of COVID-19 vaccines for children.

The role of psychosocial factors in explaining sex differences in major depression and generalized anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Understanding how pandemics differentially impact on the socio-protective and psychological outcomes of males and females is important to develop more equitable public health policies. We assessed whether males and females differed on measures of major depression and generalized anxiety during the COVID-19 the pandemic, and if so, which sociodemographic, pandemic, and psychological variables may affect sex differences in depression and anxiety. METHODS: Participants were a nationally representative sample of Irish adults (N = 1,032) assessed between April 30th to May 19th, 2020, during Ireland's first COVID-19 nationwide quarantine. Participants completed self-report measures of anxiety (GAD-7) and depression (PHQ-9), as well as 23 sociodemographic pandemic-related, and psychological variables. Sex differences on measures of depression and anxiety were assessed using binary logistic regression analysis and differences in sociodemographic, pandemic, and psychological variables assessed using chi-square tests of independence and independent samples t-tests. RESULTS: Females were significantly more likely than males to screen positive for major depressive disorder (30.6% vs. 20.7%; χ2 (1) = 13.26, p < .001, OR = 1.69 [95% CI = 1.27, 2.25]), and generalised anxiety disorder (23.3% vs. 14.4%; χ2 (1) = 13.42, p < .001, OR = 1.81 [95% CI = 1.31, 2.49]). When adjusted for all other sex-varying covariates however, sex was no longer significantly associated with screening positive for depression (AOR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.51, 1.25) or GAD (AOR = 0.97, 95% CI = 0.60, 1.57). CONCLUSION: Observed sex-differences in depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland are best explained by psychosocial factors of COVID-19 related anxiety, trait neuroticism, lower sleep quality, higher levels of loneliness, greater somatic problems, and, in the case of depression, increases in childcaring responsibilities and lower trait consciousnesses. Implications of these findings for public health policy and interventions are discussed.

Measurement invariance of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) across four European countries during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background: The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) are self-report measures of major depressive disorder and generalised anxiety disorder. The primary aim of this study was to test for differential item functioning (DIF) on the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 items based on age, sex (males and females), and country. Method: Data from nationally representative surveys in UK, Ireland, Spain, and Italy (combined N = 6,054) were used to fit confirmatory factor analytic and multiple-indictor multiple-causes models. Results: Spain and Italy had higher latent variable means than the UK and Ireland for both anxiety and depression, but there was no evidence for differential items functioning. Conclusions: The PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores were found to be unidimensional, reliable, and largely free of DIF in data from four large nationally representative samples of the general population in the UK, Ireland, Italy and Spain. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

State of Ireland's mental health: findings from a nationally representative survey.

AIMS: Current information about the prevalence of various mental health disorders in the general adult population of the Republic of Ireland is lacking. In this study, we examined the prevalence of 12 common mental disorders, the proportion of adults who screened positive for any disorder, the sociodemographic factors associated with meeting criteria for a disorder and the associations between each disorder and history of attempted suicide. METHODS: A non-probability nationally representative sample (N = 1110) of adults living in Ireland completed self-report measures of 12 mental health disorders. Effect sizes were calculated using odds ratios from logistic regression models, and population attributable risk fractions (PAFs) were estimated to quantify the associations between each disorder and attempted suicide. RESULTS: Prevalence rates ranged from 15.0% (insomnia disorder) to 1.7% (histrionic personality disorder). Overall, 42.5% of the sample met criteria for a mental health disorder, and 11.1% had a lifetime history of attempted suicide. Younger age, being a shift worker and trauma exposure were independently associated with a higher likelihood of having a mental health disorder, while being in university was associated with a lower likelihood of having a disorder. ICD-11 complex posttraumatic stress disorder, borderline personality disorder and insomnia disorder had the highest PAFs for attempted suicide. CONCLUSIONS: Mental health disorder prevalence in Ireland is relatively high compared to international estimates. The findings are discussed in relation to important mental health policy implications.

Tracking the psychological and socio-economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK: A methodological report from Wave 5 of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) Study.

OBJECTIVES: The COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) Study was established in March 2020 to monitor the psychological and socio-economic impact of the pandemic in the UK and other countries. This paper describes the protocol for Wave 5 (March-April 2021). METHODS: The survey assessed: COVID-19 related experiences; experiences of common mental health disorders; psychological characteristics; and social and political attitudes. Adults who participated in any previous wave (N = 4949) were re-invited to participate. Weights were calculated using a survey raking algorithm to ensure the longitudinal panel was nationally representative in terms of gender, age, and household income, amongst other factors. RESULTS: Overall, 2520 adults participated. A total of 2377 adults who participated in the previous survey wave (November-December 2020) were re-interviewed at Wave 5 (61.5% retention rate). Attrition between these two waves was predicted by younger age, lower household income, children living in the household, and treatment for mental health difficulties. Of the adults recruited into the C19PRC study at baseline, 57.4% (N = 1162) participated in Wave 5. The raking procedure re-balanced the longitudinal panel to within 1.5% of population estimates for selected socio-demographic characteristics. CONCLUSION: This paper outlines the growing strength of the publicly available C19PRC Study data for COVID-19-related interdisciplinary research.

Attitudes Towards Mental Health Services During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings from a Nationally Representative Sample of Irish Adults.

This study sought to determine the public's attitudes towards mental health services during the COVID-19 pandemic and examine the sociodemographic and psychological factors associated with these attitudes to gain an understanding of the best course of action to increase favourable attitudes. Data from the Republic of Ireland arm of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) study was used to fulfil the objectives of this study. Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with statements regarding mental health services and the COVID-19 pandemic. Levels of agreement were then scored, and the relationships between attitude scores and sociodemographic and psychological factors were evaluated utilizing hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Sociodemographic factors associated with positive attitudes towards mental health were older age, experience with mental health treatment, and experience with internalizing distress. These factors should be considered when developing strategies to increase favourable public attitudes towards mental health services in Ireland.

How is loneliness related to anxiety and depression: A population-based network analysis in the early lockdown period.

High risk of mental health problems is associated with loneliness resulting from social distancing measures and "lockdowns" that have been imposed globally due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This study explores the interconnectedness of loneliness, anxiety and depression on a symptom level using network analysis. A representative sample of participants (N = 1041), who were of at least 18 years of age, was recruited from the Republic of Ireland (ROI). Loneliness, anxiety and depression were assessed using validated instruments. Network analysis was used to identify the network structure of loneliness, anxiety and depression. Loneliness was found to be largely isolated from anxiety and depression nodes in the network. Anxiety and depression were largely interconnected. "Trouble relaxing," "feeling bad about oneself" and "not being able to stop or control worrying" were suggested as the most influential nodes of the network. Despite the expectation that loneliness would be implicated more robustly in the anxiety and depression network of symptoms, the results suggest loneliness as a distinct construct that is not interwoven with anxiety and depression.

Temporal associations between insomnia and depression symptoms in adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-lagged path modelling analysis.

It is well recognised that there is an intimate relationship between sleep and depression, with poor quality or short duration sleep associated with greater symptoms of depression. However, it is not clear from the current evidence base what the temporal relationship is between symptoms of insomnia and depression. Further, it is also unclear how the COVID-19 pandemic may impact on such relationships. In this study we have examined the longitudinal relationships between symptoms of depression and insomnia during the COVID-19 pandemic at two points separated by one year (April/May 2020 and March/April 2021) in a sample of 1032 Irish adults using a cross-lagged paths model. We report that there is a bidirectional relationship across time between depression and insomnia symptoms (ß = -0.115 between Insomnia symptoms and subsequent depression symptoms and ß = -0.163 between depression symptoms and subsequent insomnia symptoms; scales scored in opposite directions), and that these relationships persist when COVID-19 anxiety, age and sex are introduced into the model. Our analyses suggest that during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic that insomnia symptoms predicted depression symptoms one year later, and conversely that depression symptoms predicted subsequent insomnia symptoms.

Testing both affordability-availability and psychological-coping mechanisms underlying changes in alcohol use during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Two theoretical perspectives have been proffered to explain changes in alcohol use during the pandemic: the 'affordability-availability' mechanism (i.e., drinking decreases due to changes in physical availability and/or reduced disposable income) and the 'psychological-coping' mechanism (i.e., drinking increases as adults attempt to cope with pandemic-related distress). We tested these alternative perspectives via longitudinal analyses of the COVID-19 Psychological Consortium (C19PRC) Study data (spanning three timepoints during March to July 2020). Respondents provided data on psychological measures (e.g., anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, paranoia, extraversion, neuroticism, death anxiety, COVID-19 anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, resilience), changes in socio-economic circumstances (e.g., income loss, reduced working hours), drinking motives, solitary drinking, and 'at-risk' drinking (assessed using a modified version of the AUDIT-C). Structural equation modelling was used to determine (i) whether 'at-risk' drinking during the pandemic differed from that recalled before the pandemic, (ii) dimensions of drinking motives and the psychosocial correlates of these dimensions, (iii) if increased alcohol consumption was predicted by drinking motives, solitary drinking, and socio-economic changes. The proportion of adults who recalled engaging in 'at-risk' drinking decreased significantly from 35.9% pre-pandemic to 32.0% during the pandemic. Drinking to cope was uniquely predicted by experiences of anxiety and/or depression and low resilience levels. Income loss or reduced working hours were not associated with coping, social enhancement, or conformity drinking motives, nor changes in drinking during lockdown. In the earliest stage of the pandemic, psychological-coping mechanisms may have been a stronger driver to changes in adults' alcohol use than 'affordability-availability' alone.

Sharing data to better understand one of the world's most significant shared experiences: data resource profile of the longitudinal COVID-19 psychological research consortium (C19PRC) study.

This paper serves to alert IJPDS readers to the availability of a major new longitudinal survey data resource, the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (C19PRC) Study, which is being released for secondary use via the Open Science Framework. The C19PRC Study is a rich and detailed dataset that provides a convenient and valuable foundation from which to study the social, political, and health status of European adults during an unprecedented time of change as a direct result of the COVID-19 pandemic and Brexit. Here, we provide an overview of the C19PRC Study design, with the purpose of stimulating interest about the study among social scientists and maximising use of this resource.

Measurement invariance of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) across four European countries during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) are self-report measures of major depressive disorder and generalised anxiety disorder. The primary aim of this study was to test for differential item functioning (DIF) on the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 items based on age, sex (males and females), and country. METHOD: Data from nationally representative surveys in UK, Ireland, Spain, and Italy (combined N = 6,054) were used to fit confirmatory factor analytic and multiple-indictor multiple-causes models. RESULTS: Spain and Italy had higher latent variable means than the UK and Ireland for both anxiety and depression, but there was no evidence for differential items functioning. CONCLUSIONS: The PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores were found to be unidimensional, reliable, and largely free of DIF in data from four large nationally representative samples of the general population in the UK, Ireland, Italy and Spain.